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Using the Guide: A User's Handbook
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User’s Handbook, Chapter 3: Teaching and learning
Chapter 3: Teaching and learningClassroom interactions
Key ideas
- Interaction is a social process of meaning-making and interpreting
- Interaction has an important place in education as it allows active engagement with ideas and interpretation
- Interaction must be purposeful and meaningful for participants
Questions for reflection
- What kinds of interactions are evident in your classroom teaching and learning? How would you characterise them?
- Using a task from your current program or textbook, describe how you could modify it to strengthen interaction as discussed above.
- Imagine interaction in your language classroom from the point of view of one of your students. How do you think they might be experiencing the interactions you create? Ask them and compare their responses with yours.
- Audio-record an interaction from one of your classes. Analyse it using the distinction being doing and learning made above. What do you notice?
The nature of interactional language
Key ideas
- An interactive classroom requires attention to the nature and quality of language use
- Questioning is a central element in intercultural language teaching and learning and requires a thoughtful approach to the purpose of questions in learning
Questions for reflection
- How would you characterise the kinds of questions you pose your students? The ones they pose to you? The ones they pose to each other?
- Prior to your next class, consider the tasks/materials/ideas that you will be working with. Prepare two or three key questions that will extend your students' engagement. After the class take note of additional questions you posed. What do you notice?
- Describe how you might use questions to extend students' thinking.
Tasks and task-types
Key ideas
- Task-based language teaching shifted the focus of language learning from knowledge of language to a focus on its use to achieve communicative purposes
- The value of tasks in language learning resides in their focus on purposeful use of language in diverse contexts
- Task-types provide a means for ensuring that students experience a comprehensive range of learning experiences
- The difficulty with using tasks as the basis for curriculum design resides in the issue of sequencing
Questions for reflection
- In your languages teaching, do you draw a distinction between exercises and tasks or pedagogic tasks and real-life tasks? Why? Why not?
- How do you ensure that your students experience a range of tasks through your program and interactions with you?
- How might you modify one of the tasks you currently use to make it more complex and worthwhile for your students from a language-and-culture learning point of view?
Student engagement
Key idea
- In planning student learning experiences, it is important to consider: 'How does this matter to the learner?'
Questions for reflection
- Take a task or unit from your program or textbook and consider how it might matter to your students. What do you notice about, for example, the nature of the task itself, its orientation, its participants?
- How can you enhance student engagement in your program? Ask your students and compare their responses.
The diversity of learners and their life-worlds
Key ideas
- Learner differences have traditionally been understood as differences in 'ability', a fixed, cognitive characteristic of students. The shift now is to 'capability' which focuses on each student's potential
- It is necessary to understand the biographies of students, both as learners and young people, as a basis for developing their continuing learning
- Communicative interactions need to incorporate learner diversity
Questions for reflection
- How might you develop a rich understanding of your students' biographies?
- In what ways can you use the diversity of students and their families in your class?
- What do you make of Melissa's description (given in the section of the Guide above)? What implications do you draw from it for your own practice?
Scaffolding learning
Key idea
- Scaffolding involves using a range of conceptual, material and linguistic tools and technologies to lead students towards understanding
Questions for reflection
- What kinds of scaffolds do you provide learners in setting up tasks, explaining a new concept, examining visual texts, or engaging in ongoing interactive talk? What evidence do you have that they work?
- Audio-record a segment of one of your classes. Review it in terms of (1) the way you use questioning and your own responses as a form of scaffolding and (2) the way you invite students to add to, elaborate, clarify, challenge the input and responses of another student.
Technologies in language teaching and learning
Key ideas
- Communication and information technologies are integral to teaching and learning
- Technologies enable teachers and students to access contemporary materials and globalised communication interactions
- Technologies facilitate participation in the target language and with its communities
- Technologies increasingly provide students with personalised, flexible, asynchronous and networked learning opportunities
Questions for reflection
- How can or do you incorporate technology in your own practice in language teaching and learning? Explain specifically the way in which the technology itself actually mediates learning.
- Begin the process of building up a digitally sourced bank of contemporary material that you can use with your students. Think about the considerations you need to take into account in making your choices. Engage with your students in this task, acknowledge their expertise.
Practice examples
The following give you some examples from teachers' work where they have integrated the ideas of this chapter into their own teaching. Having reflected on your own teaching and how you might incorporate some of the ideas, you might have a look at the following to see how others attempted to understand the nature and impact of interactions, engagement and diversity in their language teaching. Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
Program examples
Teaching and learning are clearly fundamental parts of language programs. We have provided here some examples of programs designed by teachers for different languages and different year levels. These programs are annotated with comments through the text, but also with specific collected comments at the end which relate to the ideas of this chapter of the Guide. Clicking on the program below will take you directly to the comments at the end which discuss how the program relates to this chapter.
Don't just look at the language and year level of your teaching; good ideas come from many places! Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
User’s Handbook, Chapter 4: Resourcing and materialsChapter 4: Resourcing and materials
Key ideas
- Resources are used for diverse purposes, such as input, scaffolding and reflection
- The same resource can be used in multiple ways to enrich learning
- Teachers are critical users of resources
- Selecting resources is based on theories of language learning and culture
- Selecting resources is a process of matching resources and learning goals
- Authentic materials expose students to actual contemporary language use
- Authentic resources enlarge understandings of language and culture
- Adapting resources allows teachers to maximise their value for particular learners
- Resources need to be personalised to allow for learners to connect with them
- Language and culture are dynamic
- Resources must have contemporary relevance for students
- Effective teachers are critical users of their resources
- Any selection of resources only ever presents a partial picture of language and culture
- A resource does not exist in isolation but needs to connect with other resources as part of a learning program
- Resources are not simply texts and materials, learners themselves, can become 'the resource'
- A resource bank should provide a range of engaging learning experiences
Questions for reflection
- How do you use the resources available to you to construct an image of the target language and cultures for your learners?
- If you use a textbook, what experiences of language and culture does it provide for your learners? What additional resources may be needed? Where could you get these resources from?
- How could you use your own learners as a resource to support language learning?
- In what ways could parents, families and communities provide opportunities for linguistic and cultural analysis?
Practice examples
The following give you some examples from teachers' work where they have integrated the ideas of this chapter into their own teaching. Having reflected on your own teaching and how you might incorporate some of the ideas, you might have a look at the following to see how others attempted to understand the selection, modification and use of resources and materials in their language teaching. Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
Program examples
All language programs require resources to be selected, adapted and then used. We have provided here some examples of programs designed by teachers for different languages and different year levels. These programs are annotated with comments through the text, but also with specific collected comments at the end which relate to the ideas of this chapter of the Guide. Clicking on the program below will take you directly to the comments at the end which discuss how the program relates to this chapter.
Don't just look at the language and year level of your teaching; good ideas come from many places! Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
User’s Handbook, Chapter 5: AssessingChapter 5: Assessing
Key ideas
- Assessment is an integral part of learning
- Assessment is used for diverse purposes
- Assessment is both formative and summative
- Assessment can be understood as a cycle of interrelated processes of conceptualising, eliciting, judging and validating
- There are varied ways of eliciting evidence of student learning which capture diverse dimensions of students' learning
Questions for reflection
- How do your current teaching and assessment practices reflect assessment of learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning?
- How do you currently elicit evidence for assessment? How diverse are your assessment processes?
- Considering your role as a languages educator, what is your stance on assessment?
Practice examples
The following give you some examples from teachers' work where they have integrated the ideas of this chapter into their own teaching. Having reflected on your own teaching and how you might incorporate some of the ideas, you might have a look at the following to see how others attempted to understand the place of assessment in their language teaching. Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
Program examples
Assessment is an important part of any language program. We have provided here some examples of programs designed by teachers for different languages and different year levels. These programs are annotated with comments through the text, but also with specific collected comments at the end which relate to the ideas of this chapter of the Guide. Clicking on the program below will take you directly to the comments at the end which discuss how the program relates to this chapter.
Don't just look at the language and year level of your teaching; good ideas come from many places! Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
User’s Handbook, Chapter 6: Programming and planningChapter 6: Programming and planning
Key ideas
- Program planning for languages is more than a description of activities and goals and includes the planning of conceptual and affective learning
- Planning a language program centres around a focus on language conceived as interpersonal and intrapersonal meaning making and interpretation
- Planning a language program is planning for long-term development of learning
- Planning involves making connections between learning activities and learning goals
- Planning happens at a range of different levels
- Planning a language program involves planning the interactions in which learners engage and from which they will learn
- Planning and language programming involves personalising learning experiences
Questions for reflection
- How do you approach planning your long-term and short-term language programs? What are the main things you consider in your planning? How do you discuss your programs with your students and their parents?
- How is conceptual learning integrated into your students' learning experiences? What might you change or add to your program?
- How do you determine the scoping and sequencing of your students' learning? What connections are there between the elements that you have in your program (episodes, units of work, topics, concepts)?
- What would personalised learning look like for a particular group of your students?
Practice examples
The following give you some examples from teachers' work where they have integrated the ideas of this chapter into their own teaching. Having reflected on your own teaching and how you might incorporate some of the ideas, you might have a look at the following to see how others attempted to devise a long or short-term program for their language teaching. Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
Program examples
Planning is vital in the development of a language program. We have provided here some examples of programs designed by teachers for different languages and different year levels. These programs are annotated with comments through the text, but also with specific collected comments at the end which relate to the ideas of this chapter of the Guide. Clicking on the program below will take you directly to the comments at the end which discuss how the program relates to this chapter.
Don't just look at the language and year level of your teaching; good ideas come from many places! Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
User’s Handbook, Chapter 7: Evaluating language programsChapter 7: Evaluating language programs
Key ideas
- Evaluation is an ongoing process of building understanding of professional work
- Evaluation reflects the stance of the teacher
- Evaluation is an integral part of the process of curriculum renewal
- Evaluation is shaped by, and designed for, the context in which it is undertaken
- Evaluation is particularly valuable when it is a participatory process that includes all those involved
- The purpose of evaluation is to support improvement in teaching and learning
- The scope of evaluation may include particular dimensions and/or the program as a whole
- Evaluation involves an ongoing process of inquiry
Questions for reflection
- What role does evaluation currently play in your own professional program and curriculum renewal?
- What criteria would you use to evaluate your own curriculum? Where would these criteria come from?
- How might you, and those you work with, take an inquiry stance to your work?
Practice examples
The following give you some examples from teachers' work where they have integrated the ideas of this chapter into their own teaching. Having reflected on your own teaching and how you might incorporate some of the ideas, you might have a look at the following to see how others attempted to evaluate their own language program. Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
Program examples
Evaluation is important in order to be able to further develop a language program. We have provided here some examples of programs designed by teachers for different languages and different year levels. These programs are annotated with comments through the text, but also with specific collected comments at the end which relate to the ideas of this chapter of the Guide. Clicking on the program below will take you directly to the comments at the end which discuss how the program relates to this chapter.
Don't just look at the language and year level of your teaching; good ideas come from many places! Please note that these examples are not intended as illustrating 'best practice', but rather giving you some ideas of what other teachers have done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
Note that a number of the programs are missing from this list, as they do not explicitly refer to the evaluation of the program.
User’s Handbook, Chapter 8: Developing a professional learning cultureChapter 8: Developing a professional learning culture
Key ideas
- Effective language teachers are lifelong learners
- Involvement in a professional learning culture is a commitment to develop professionally and personally
- A professional learning culture involves developing a deep an ongoing awareness of the practices and processes of teaching and learning
- A professional learning culture is an ongoing process of learning from, and reflecting on, a personal and professional stance, including understandings, ideas and experiences
- The focus of a learning culture is on learning in diverse contexts: teacher learning, student learning, community learning
- Professional learning happens in a range of different ways
- A professional learning culture is based on dialogue with others, including students, peers, mentors and professional networks
Questions for reflection
- How could you increase your opportunities for involvement in a learning community either within or outside your school?
- What issues do you face in your professional practice which an investigative stance could help you understand and change?
- How do you involve parents and members of the school community in developing and monitoring a learning culture?
- What do the AFMLTA professional standards for languages teaching contribute to your understanding of your professional learning needs?
Practice example
The following gives you an example from the work of a teacher who was integrating the ideas of this chapter into her own teaching. Having reflected on your own teaching and how you might incorporate some of the ideas, you might have a look at the following to see how one teacher attempted to reflect on her own practice in language teaching and work towards exploring her own professional learning culture. Please note that this example are not intended as illustrating 'best practice' or 'how to reflect', but rather it is intended to give you some ideas of what another teacher has done that you might wish to try out in your own work.
User’s Handbook, Chapter 9: Further resourcesChapter 9: Further resources
Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (DEEWR): Languages Education
An Investigation of the state and nature of languages in Australian schools: DEEWR
National Statement and Plan on Languages Education in Australian Schools: DEEWR
National Statement for Engaging Young Australians with Asia in Australian Schools: DEEWR
School Languages Program: DEEWR
The Adelaide Declaration on National Goals for Schooling in the Twenty-first Century, DEEWR
Professional Standards Project: DEEWR
Asian Languages Professional Learning Project: DEEWR
Leading Languages Education Project
Research Centre for Languages and Cultures (RCLC), University of South Australia
CARLA: Centre for Advanced Research on Languages Acquisition
CILT: National Centre for Languages
Federation of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Languages (FATSIL)
Australian Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations
Language Teachers' Association of the Northern Territory
Modern Language Teachers Association of New South Wales
Modern Language Teachers Association of Queensland
Modern Language Teachers Association of South Australia
Modern Language Teachers Association of Tasmania
Modern Language Teachers Association of Victoria
Modern Language Teachers Association of Western Australia
Australian Council of State Schools Organisations (ACCSO)
Australian Parents Council (APC)
Community Languages Australia: Australian Federation of Ethnic Schools Associations
Independent Schools Council of Australia (ISCA)
National Catholic Education Commission (NCEC)
User’s Handbook, Chapter 10: References
Chapter 10: References
The following lists all the works which are referred to in the text of the Guide. Some of these are available on the internet; however the majority are probably only available in university libraries or your state library.
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Australian Federation of Modern Language Teachers Associations (AFMLTA), Professional standards for accomplished teaching of languages and cultures, www.afmlta.asn.au
Australian Education Council 1989, Common and agreed national goals for schooling in Australia (The ‘Hobart Declaration’), Australian Education Council (now MCEETYA). Available at: www.mceetya.edu.au/mceetya/default.asp?id=11577
Black, P & Jones, J 2006, ‘Formative assessment and the learning and teaching of MFL: sharing the languages learning road map with the learners’, in Language Learning Journal,34, Issue 1, 4-9. Reprinted by permission of the publisher, Taylor & Francis Ltd: www.tandf.co.uk/journals
Broadfoot, P 2005, ‘Dark alleys and blind bends. Testing the language of learning’, in Language Testing, 2005, 22(2), 123-141 ©Reprinted by Permission of SAGE.
Candlin, CN 1999, ‘Researching and teaching for a living curriculum: Australia’s critical contribution to praxis in language teaching and learning’. Paper presented at the conference ‘The AMEP: 50 years of nation building’, Melbourne.
Cazden, CB 1988, Classroom Discourse: The Language of Teaching and Learning. Heinemann, Portsmouth.
Chomsky N 1957, 'A Review of Skinner’s Verbal Behavior', Language 35, 26–28.
Clark, JL, Scarino, A & Brownell, JA 1994, Improving the Quality of Learning, Hong Kong Institute of Language in Education, Hong Kong.
Collaborative Curriculum and Assessment Framework for Languages (CCAFL), www.go8.edu.au/policy/papers/2007/Go8%20Languages%20in%20Crisis%20Discussion%20Paper.pdf
Cochran-Smith, M & Lytle, S 1999, ‘Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning in communities’, Review of Research in Education, 24, 249-306 ©Reprinted by Permission of SAGE Publications.
Cope, B & Kalantzis, M 2000, Multiliteracies. Literacy learning and the design of social futures, Macmillan, Melbourne.
Council for the Australian Federation 2007, ‘The future of schooling in Australia’ in Federalist Paper 2.
Council of Australian Government (COAG) 1994, Asian Languages and Australia’s Economic Future, Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Crichton, J 2007, ‘Why an investigative stance matters in intercultural language teaching and learning: An orientation to classroom-based investigation’, Intercultural Language Teaching and Learning in Practice, Discussion Paper 8, www.iltlp.unisa.edu.au/doclibpapers/iltlp_paper8.pdf. Copyright Commonwealth of Australia. Reproduced by permission.
Crowther, F, Kaagan, SS, Ferguson, M, & Hann, L 2002, Developing Teacher Leaders: How Teacher Leadership Enhances School Success, Corwin Press, London.
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Haertel, EH, Moss, PA, Pullin, DC & Gee, JP 2008, Assessment, Equity and Opportunity to Learn, Cambridge University Press, New York.
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